Exploring Semi-Automatic Map Labeling

More recent works introduced advanced multi-criteria optimization models [12, 21, 27] that can express more accurately several established cartographic principles, but still with the aim of a full automation of the map labeling process. While progress is made by incorporating more comprehensive cartographic rules for label placement, none of the above approaches includes decisions made by human experts - other than setting preferences, parameters, and priorities in the different scoring functions that control a single optimization run of the respective algorithm. A notable exception is the UserHints framework [7], where human interaction was integrated into solving the label number maximization problem in a fixed-position point labeling setting. In that system, two heuristic methods were implemented as labeling algorithms, and hence the evaluation could not assess the deviation from optimal solutions with respect to the objective function. Moreover, the authors did not consider the stability of the labeling under user interaction. Beyond the label placement problem, interactive optimization [22] and human-guided search [16] are of course techniques that are of general interest and more broadly applicable. 2 Popular GIS software like Mapbox 1, ArcGIS Pro 2, or QGIS 3 also provide labeling algorithms. Mapbox allows customized label modifications with data conditions, but no manual selection or drag-and-drop placement. The ArcGIS Pro documentation 4 states "Label positions are generated automatically.