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Language models (LMs) exhibit remarkable abilities to solve new tasks from just a few examples or textual instructions, especially at scale. They also, paradoxically, struggle with basic functionality, such as arithmetic or factual lookup, where much simpler and smaller specialized models excel. In this paper, we show that LMs can teach themselves to use external tools via simple APIs and achieve the best of both worlds. We introduce Toolformer, a model trained to decide which APIs to call, when to call them, what arguments to pass, and how to best incorporate the results into future token prediction. This is done in a self-supervised way, requiring nothing more than a handful of demonstrations for each API. We incorporate a range of tools, including a calculator, a Q&A system, a search engine, a translation system, and a calendar. Toolformer achieves substantially improved zero-shot performance across a variety of downstream tasks, often competitive with much larger models, without sacrificing its core language modeling abilities.

Algorithm 1 Association Graph Learning (TRAININGTIME) Require: {Dtrt }Tt=1: Training sets of all tasks; T: Number of tasks; C: Number of all classes; E: Shared feature extractor; WT,WC: Parameters of metric functions in the association graph; L: Number of GNN layers; {Wl}Ll=1: Parameters of all GNN layers; {ft}Tt=1: Task-specific classifiers; λ: Learning rate. For clarity, we provide the algorithms during training and test in Algorithm 1 and Algorithm 2, respectively. Algorithm 2 Association Graph Learning (TESTTIME) Require: xt: one test instance from the t-th task; E: Trained the feature extractor; GT,GC: Trained task and class graph; L: Number of GNN layers; {Wl}Ll=1: Trained parameters of all GNN layers; ft: The trained task-specific classifier. In this section, we provide the class assignment of all datasets under different missing rates. Table B.1, B.2, B.3 shows the class assignment for Office-Home, Office-Caltechand ImageCLEF, respectively.

Unsafe operations described in natural text lead to a lower rejection rate than thoseincodeformat.

In this section, we provide the class assignment of all datasets under different missing rates. The proposed setting is anew multi-task learning scenario. Its practical applications could not be limited by the mentioned assumption in the testing space. Table B.2: The observed classes of each task onOffice-Caltech with different missing rates. Office-Home [9] contains images from four domains/tasks: Artistic, Clipart, Product and Realworld. Skin-Lesion contains three skin lesion classification tasks: HAM10000 [8], Dermofit [2] and Derm7pt[5].