Fairness studies of algorithmic decision-making systems often simplify complex decision processes, such as bail or loan approvals, into binary classification tasks. However, these approaches overlook that such decisions are not inherently binary (e.g., approve or not approve bail or loan); they also involve non-binary treatment decisions (e.g., bail conditions or loan terms) that can influence the downstream outcomes (e.g., loan repayment or reoffending). In this paper, we argue that non-binary treatment decisions are integral to the decision process and controlled by decision-makers and, therefore, should be central to fairness analyses in algorithmic decision-making. We propose a causal framework that extends fairness analyses and explicitly distinguishes between decision-subjects' covariates and the treatment decisions. This specification allows decision-makers to use our framework to (i) measure treatment disparity and its downstream effects in historical data and, using counterfactual reasoning, (ii) mitigate the impact of past unfair treatment decisions when automating decision-making. We use our framework to empirically analyze four widely used loan approval datasets to reveal potential disparity in non-binary treatment decisions and their discriminatory impact on outcomes, highlighting the need to incorporate treatment decisions in fairness assessments. Moreover, by intervening in treatment decisions, we show that our framework effectively mitigates treatment discrimination from historical data to ensure fair risk score estimation and (non-binary) decision-making processes that benefit all stakeholders.

Estimating 3d human pose from monocular images is a challenging problem due to the variety and complexity of human poses and the inherent ambiguity in recovering depth from the single view. Recent deep learning based methods show promising results by using supervised learning on 3d pose annotated datasets. However, the lack of large-scale 3d annotated training data captured under in-the-wild settings makes the 3d pose estimation difficult for in-the-wild poses. Few approaches have utilized training images from both 3d and 2d pose datasets in a weakly-supervised manner for learning 3d poses in unconstrained settings. In this paper, we propose a method which can effectively predict 3d human pose from 2d pose using a deep neural network trained in a weakly-supervised manner on a combination of ground-truth 3d pose and ground-truth 2d pose. Our method uses re-projection error minimization as a constraint to predict the 3d locations of body joints, and this is crucial for training on data where the 3d ground-truth is not present. Since minimizing re-projection error alone may not guarantee an accurate 3d pose, we also use additional geometric constraints on skeleton pose to regularize the pose in 3d. We demonstrate the superior generalization ability of our method by cross-dataset validation on a challenging 3d benchmark dataset MPI-INF-3DHP containing in the wild 3d poses.