Identifying causal effects is a key problem of interest across many disciplines. The two long-standing approaches to estimate causal effects are observational and experimental (randomized) studies.
Zeroth-order (gradient-free) optimization is increasingly embraced for solving machine learning problems where explicit expressions of the gradients are difficult or infeasible to obtain.
In practice, most combinatorial optimization problems can be formulated as mixed-integer linear programs (MILPs), in which case branch-and-bound (B&B) [35] is the exact method of choice.