The performance of machine learning classification algorithms are evaluated by estimating metrics, often from the confusion matrix, using training data and cross-validation. However, these do not prove that the best possible performance has been achieved. Fundamental limits to error rates can be estimated using information distance measures. To this end, the confusion matrix has been formulated to comply with the Chernoff-Stein Lemma. This links the error rates to the Kullback-Leibler divergences between the probability density functions describing the two classes. This leads to a key result that relates Cohen's Kappa to the Resistor Average Distance which is the parallel resistor combination of the two Kullback-Leibler divergences. The Resistor Average Distance has units of bits and is estimated from the same training data used by the classification algorithm, using kNN estimates of the KullBack-Leibler divergences. The classification algorithm gives the confusion matrix and Kappa. Theory and methods are discussed in detail and then applied to Monte Carlo data and real datasets. Four very different real datasets - Breast Cancer, Coronary Heart Disease, Bankruptcy, and Particle Identification - are analysed, with both continuous and discrete values, and their classification performance compared to the expected theoretical limit. In all cases this analysis shows that the algorithms could not have performed any better due to the underlying probability density functions for the two classes. Important lessons are learnt on how to predict the performance of algorithms for imbalanced data using training datasets that are approximately balanced. Machine learning is very powerful but classification performance ultimately depends on the quality of the data and the relevance of the variables to the problem.

Automatically generating feedback via large language models (LLMs) in intelligent tutoring systems and online learning platforms has the potential to improve the learning outcomes of many students. However, both feedback generation and evaluation are challenging: feedback content has to be valid especially in subjects like math, which requires models to understand the problem, the solution, and where the student's error lies. Feedback also has to be pedagogically valid to reflect effective tutoring strategies, such as explaining possible misconceptions and encouraging the student, among other desirable features. In this work, we address both problems of automatically generating and evaluating feedback while considering both correctness and alignment. First, we propose a rubric for evaluating math feedback and show that GPT-4 is able to effectively use it to annotate human-written and LLM-generated feedback. Second, we propose a framework for feedback generation that optimizes both correctness and alignment using reinforcement learning (RL). Specifically, we use GPT-4's annotations to create preferences over feedback pairs in an augmented dataset for training via direct preference optimization (DPO). We show that our methods significantly increase the correctness and alignment of generated feedback with Llama 2, an open-source LLM, qualitatively analyze our generation and evaluation systems using case studies, and outline several areas for future work.

Moreover, text similarity metrics may not be suitable In educational applications, artificial intelligence for some open-ended natural language generation (AI) approaches have shown significant promise in tasks (Amidei et al., 2018). As an example, the answer improving learning outcomes (Aleven et al., 2016; "The final exam will be on Dec 15", has high VanLehn, 2011), by automatically providing feedback surface-level textual similarity with the reference to students or engaging in tutoring dialogues answer, "The final exam is on Dec 14", but contains with them. The key idea is to use AI to create an ondemand a critical factual error that may lead to significant virtual teaching assistant to interact with negative consequences to students. Meanwhile, many students simultaneously; see, e.g., Khamigo human instructors and teaching assistants often answer from Khan Academy (Academy, 2022). These approaches student questions in a concise way, without can scale up the effort of expert human giving any unnecessary information. Therefore, it teachers and tutors, and relieve them from doing is important for LLM-based approaches to generate repetitive tasks so that they can focus on providing answers that are both concise and precise.

Knowledge graphs have garnered significant research attention and are widely used to enhance downstream applications. However, most current studies mainly focus on static knowledge graphs, whose facts do not change with time, and disregard their dynamic evolution over time. As a result, temporal knowledge graphs have attracted more attention because a large amount of structured knowledge exists only within a specific period. Knowledge graph representation learning aims to learn low-dimensional vector embeddings for entities and relations in a knowledge graph. The representation learning of temporal knowledge graphs incorporates time information into the standard knowledge graph framework and can model the dynamics of entities and relations over time. In this paper, we conduct a comprehensive survey of temporal knowledge graph representation learning and its applications. We begin with an introduction to the definitions, datasets, and evaluation metrics for temporal knowledge graph representation learning. Next, we propose a taxonomy based on the core technologies of temporal knowledge graph representation learning methods, and provide an in-depth analysis of different methods in each category. Finally, we present various downstream applications related to the temporal knowledge graphs. In the end, we conclude the paper and have an outlook on the future research directions in this area.

In today's digital world, social media plays a significant role in facilitating communication and content sharing. However, the exponential rise in user-generated content has led to challenges in maintaining a respectful online environment. In some cases, users have taken advantage of anonymity in order to use harmful language, which can negatively affect the user experience and pose serious social problems. Recognizing the limitations of manual moderation, automatic detection systems have been developed to tackle this problem. Nevertheless, several obstacles persist, including the absence of a universal definition for harmful language, inadequate datasets across languages, the need for detailed annotation guideline, and most importantly, a comprehensive framework. This study aims to address these challenges by introducing, for the first time, a detailed framework adaptable to any language. This framework encompasses various aspects of harmful language detection. A key component of the framework is the development of a general and detailed annotation guideline. Additionally, the integration of sentiment analysis represents a novel approach to enhancing harmful language detection. Also, a definition of harmful language based on the review of different related concepts is presented. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework, its implementation in a challenging low-resource language is conducted. We collected a Persian dataset and applied the annotation guideline for harmful detection and sentiment analysis. Next, we present baseline experiments utilizing machine and deep learning methods to set benchmarks. Results prove the framework's high performance, achieving an accuracy of 99.4% in offensive language detection and 66.2% in sentiment analysis.

This paper introduces SceneCraft, a Large Language Model (LLM) Agent converting text descriptions into Blender-executable Python scripts which render complex scenes with up to a hundred 3D assets. This process requires complex spatial planning and arrangement. We tackle these challenges through a combination of advanced abstraction, strategic planning, and library learning. SceneCraft first models a scene graph as a blueprint, detailing the spatial relationships among assets in the scene. SceneCraft then writes Python scripts based on this graph, translating relationships into numerical constraints for asset layout. Next, SceneCraft leverages the perceptual strengths of vision-language foundation models like GPT-V to analyze rendered images and iteratively refine the scene. On top of this process, SceneCraft features a library learning mechanism that compiles common script functions into a reusable library, facilitating continuous self-improvement without expensive LLM parameter tuning. Our evaluation demonstrates that SceneCraft surpasses existing LLM-based agents in rendering complex scenes, as shown by its adherence to constraints and favorable human assessments. We also showcase the broader application potential of SceneCraft by reconstructing detailed 3D scenes from the Sintel movie and guiding a video generative model with generated scenes as intermediary control signal.

Knowledge graph question answering (KGQA) is a well-established field that seeks to provide factual answers to natural language (NL) questions by leveraging knowledge graphs (KGs). However, existing KGQA datasets suffer from two significant limitations: (1) no existing KGQA dataset requires commonsense reasoning to arrive at an answer and (2) existing KGQA datasets focus on popular entities for which large language models (LLMs) can directly answer without hallucinating and without leveraging the KG. In this work, we seek a novel KGQA dataset that supports commonsense reasoning and focuses on long-tail entities (e.g., non-mainstream and recent entities) where LLMs frequently hallucinate, and thus create the need for novel methodologies that leverage the KG for factual and attributable commonsense inference. We create a novel Commonsense Reasoning (CR) and Long-Tail (LT) KGQA dataset with two subtasks -- question answering and claim verification -- that address both limitations (1) and (2). We construct CR-LT-KGQA by building extensions to existing reasoning datasets StrategyQA and CREAK over Wikidata. While existing KGQA methods are not applicable due to their lack of commonsense inference support, baseline evaluation of LLMs on CR-LT KGQA demonstrate a high rate of hallucination. Thus, CR-LT KGQA poses significant challenges for hallucination-prone LLMs, hence paving the way for future commonsense KGQA research to provide accurate and factual answers for long-tail entities in the era of LLMs.

Temporal knowledge graph completion (TKGC) aims to fill in missing facts within a given temporal knowledge graph at a specific time. Existing methods, operating in real or complex spaces, have demonstrated promising performance in this task. This paper advances beyond conventional approaches by introducing more expressive quaternion representations for TKGC within hypercomplex space. Unlike existing quaternion-based methods, our study focuses on capturing time-sensitive relations rather than time-aware entities. Specifically, we model time-sensitive relations through time-aware rotation and periodic time translation, effectively capturing complex temporal variability. Furthermore, we theoretically demonstrate our method's capability to model symmetric, asymmetric, inverse, compositional, and evolutionary relation patterns. Comprehensive experiments on public datasets validate that our proposed approach achieves state-of-the-art performance in the field of TKGC.

Herding-- one of humanity's most foundational ways of life--is a pillar of survival in West Africa's Sahel. Migratory herders usher cattle between seasonal pastures, since they rarely own land. However, these traditional ways of doing things are becoming increasingly impossible, thanks to a complex mix of climate change, politics and war. In more recent years, various Western players touting tech trends like artificial intelligence and predictive analysis have swooped in with promises to solve the region's myriad problems. But some think there could be a much simpler solution, that puts real data directly into the herders' hands. Recent advances in data collection--both from geosatellites and from herders themselves--have generated an abundance of information on ground cover quantity and quality, water availability, rain forecasts, livestock concentrations, and more.

Doha, Qatar – At one of the world's largest technology conferences, whether it was on the main stage, its side panels, or at the dozens of glitzy, towering company booths, there was one term on everybody's lips: artificial intelligence (AI). At Web Summit – held for the first time in the Middle East in Doha – and which wrapped up on Thursday, entrepreneurs, investors and business leaders from around the world were all talking about AI's capabilities. Yet alongside that excitement, there are also growing concerns among experts that these technologies could exacerbate inequities dividing the world. Technologies, including AI, run the risk of amplifying biases that already exist, according to Ayo Tometi, co-creator of the US-based antiracist movement Black Lives Matter. "We're seeing quite literally, that prejudice is being programmed into the technologies that are being deployed in our communities. And these biases must be addressed," Tometi said at the summit.