Machine learning is now being used to make crucial decisions about people's lives. For nearly all of these decisions there is a risk that individuals of a certain race, gender, sexual orientation, or any other subpopulation are unfairly discriminated against. Our recent method has demonstrated how to use techniques from counterfactual inference to make predictions fair across different subpopulations. This method requires that one provides the causal model that generated the data at hand. In general, validating all causal implications of the model is not possible without further assumptions.

Machine learning models can often fail on subgroups that are underrepresented during training.

This paper investigates ML systems serving a group of users, with multiple models/services, each aimed at specializing to a sub-group of users.

CelebA is a well-known large-scale face dataset. Same as previous works [41, 58], we employ this dataset to predict the color of the human hair as "blond" or "not blond".

However, some recent studies haverecognized that most ofthese approaches failtoimprovethe performance over empirical risk minimization especially when applied to overparameterized neural networks.

The training population typically does not accurately represent what the model will encounter underoperation.