In the late 19th century, Georg Cantor believed his new theory could help the Church understand the infinite nature of the divine. It might have escaped lay people at the time, but for some observers the ascension of Leo XIV as head of the Catholic Church this year was a reminder that the last time a Pope Leo sat in St. Peter's Chair in the Vatican, from 1878 to 1903, the modern view of infinity was born. Georg Cantor's completely original "naïve" set theory caused both revolution and revolt in mathematical circles, with some embracing his ideas and others rejecting them. Cantor was deeply disappointed with the negative reactions, of course, but never with his own ideas. Because he held firm to the belief that he had a main line to the absolute--that his ideas came direct from (the divine intellect).

-- In swarm robotics, confrontation scenarios, including strategic confrontations, require efficient decision-making that integrates discrete commands and continuous actions. Traditional task and motion planning methods separate decision-making into two layers, but their unidirectional structure fails to capture the interdependence between these layers, limiting adaptability in dynamic environments. Here, we propose a novel bidirectional approach based on hierarchical reinforcement learning, enabling dynamic interaction between the layers. This method effectively maps commands to task allocation and actions to path planning, while leveraging cross-training techniques to enhance learning across the hierarchical framework. Furthermore, we introduce a trajectory prediction model that bridges abstract task representations with actionable planning goals. In our experiments, it achieves over 80% in confrontation win rate and under 0.01 seconds in decision time, outperforming existing approaches. Demonstrations through large-scale tests and real-world robot experiments further emphasize the generalization capabilities and practical applicability of our method. I. INTRODUCTION Recent advances in artificial intelligence lead to significant progress in robotics [1], [2], with particular attention given to robotic swarm confrontations [3], [4].

This paper investigates the specific scenario of high-intensity confrontations between humans and robots, to understand how robots can defuse the conflict. It focuses on the effectiveness of using five different affective expression modalities as main drivers for defusing the conflict. The aim is to discover any strengths or weaknesses in using each modality to mitigate the hostility that people feel towards a poorly performing robot. The defusing of the situation is accomplished by making the robot better at acknowledging the conflict and by letting it express remorse. To facilitate the tests, we used a custom affective robot in a simulated conflict situation with 105 test participants. The results show that all tested expression modalities can successfully be used to defuse the situation and convey an acknowledgment of the confrontation. The ratings were remarkably similar, but the movement modality was different (ANON p$<$.05) than the other modalities. The test participants also had similar affective interpretations on how impacted the robot was of the confrontation across all expression modalities. This indicates that defusing a high-intensity interaction may not demand special attention to the expression abilities of the robot, but rather require attention to the abilities of being socially aware of the situation and reacting in accordance with it.

This article redefines arbitrariness not as a normative flaw or a symptom of domination, but as a foundational functional mechanism structuring human systems and interactions. Diverging from critical traditions that conflate arbitrariness with injustice, it posits arbitrariness as a semiotic trait: a property enabling systems - linguistic, legal, or social - to operate effectively while withholding their internal rationale. Building on Ferdinand de Saussure's concept of l'arbitraire du signe, the analysis extends this principle beyond language to demonstrate its cross-domain applicability, particularly in law and social dynamics. The paper introduces the "Motivation -> Constatability -> Contestability" chain, arguing that motivation functions as a crucial interface rendering an act's logic vulnerable to intersubjective contestation. When this chain is broken through mechanisms like "immotivization" or "Conflict Lateralization" (exemplified by "the blur of the wolf drowned in the fish"), acts produce binding effects without exposing their rationale, thus precluding justiciability. This structural opacity, while appearing illogical, is a deliberate design protecting authority from accountability. Drawing on Shannon's entropy model, the paper formalizes arbitrariness as A = H(L|M) (conditional entropy). It thereby proposes a modern theory of arbitrariness as a neutral operator central to control as well as care, an overlooked dimension of interpersonal relations. While primarily developed through human social systems, this framework also illuminates a new pathway for analyzing explainability in advanced artificial intelligence systems.

In multiple unmanned ground vehicle confrontations, autonomously evolving multi-agent tactical decisions from situational awareness remain a significant challenge. Traditional handcraft rule-based methods become vulnerable in the complicated and transient battlefield environment, and current reinforcement learning methods mainly focus on action manipulation instead of strategic decisions due to lack of interpretability. Here, we propose a vision-language model-based commander to address the issue of intelligent perception-to-decision reasoning in autonomous confrontations. Our method integrates a vision language model for scene understanding and a lightweight large language model for strategic reasoning, achieving unified perception and decision within a shared semantic space, with strong adaptability and interpretability. Unlike rule-based search and reinforcement learning methods, the combination of the two modules establishes a full-chain process, reflecting the cognitive process of human commanders. Simulation and ablation experiments validate that the proposed approach achieves a win rate of over 80% compared with baseline models.

Traditional rule-based decision-making methods with interpretable advantage, such as finite state machine, suffer from the jitter or deadlock(JoD) problems in extremely dynamic scenarios. To realize agent swarm confrontation, decision conflicts causing many JoD problems are a key issue to be solved. Here, we propose a novel decision-making framework that integrates probabilistic finite state machine, deep convolutional networks, and reinforcement learning to implement interpretable intelligence into agents. Our framework overcomes state machine instability and JoD problems, ensuring reliable and adaptable decisions in swarm confrontation. The proposed approach demonstrates effective performance via enhanced human-like cooperation and competitive strategies in the rigorous evaluation of real experiments, outperforming other methods.

In swarm robotics, confrontation including the pursuit-evasion game is a key scenario. High uncertainty caused by unknown opponents' strategies and dynamic obstacles complicates the action space into a hybrid decision process. Although the deep reinforcement learning method is significant for swarm confrontation since it can handle various sizes, as an end-to-end implementation, it cannot deal with the hybrid process. Here, we propose a novel hierarchical reinforcement learning approach consisting of a target allocation layer, a path planning layer, and the underlying dynamic interaction mechanism between the two layers, which indicates the quantified uncertainty. It decouples the hybrid process into discrete allocation and continuous planning layers, with a probabilistic ensemble model to quantify the uncertainty and regulate the interaction frequency adaptively. Furthermore, to overcome the unstable training process introduced by the two layers, we design an integration training method including pre-training and cross-training, which enhances the training efficiency and stability. Experiment results in both comparison and ablation studies validate the effectiveness and generalization performance of our proposed approach.

Training an agent to adapt to specific tasks through co-optimization of morphology and control has widely attracted attention. However, whether there exists an optimal configuration and tactics for agents in a multiagent competition scenario is still an issue that is challenging to definitively conclude. In this context, we propose competitive evolution (CompetEvo), which co-evolves agents' designs and tactics in confrontation. We build arenas consisting of three animals and their evolved derivatives, placing agents with different morphologies in direct competition with each other. The results reveal that our method enables agents to evolve a more suitable design and strategy for fighting compared to fixed-morph agents, allowing them to obtain advantages in combat scenarios. Moreover, we demonstrate the amazing and impressive behaviors that emerge when confrontations are conducted under asymmetrical morphs.

Kyiv, Ukraine – It looked like a deliberate manoeuvre by a skilled pilot that led to the first direct military clash between the United States and Russia since Moscow invaded Ukraine. Two Russian fighter jets approached a US drone flying in the cloudless, azure sky over international waters in the Black Sea on Tuesday morning. One of the Russian Su-27s released a stream of jet fuel on the MQ-9 Reaper drone, causing its cameras to shut off. Then the Su-27 hit the Reaper's propeller, causing it to tumble into the sea, the Pentagon said. It said the Reaper was a "reconnaissance drone" and carried no arms, although the unmanned aircraft with a wingspan of 26 metres (85 feet) was designed as a "hunter-killer" armed with laser-guided bombs and missiles.

The Pentagon on Thursday released footage of what it said was a Russian aircraft pouring fuel on a U.S. Air Force surveillance drone and clipping the drone's propeller in international airspace over the Black Sea. The 42-second video shows a Russian Su-27 approaching the back of the MQ-9 drone and beginning to release fuel as it passes, the Pentagon said. Dumping the fuel appeared to be aimed at blinding its optical instruments and driving it out of the area. On a second approach, either the same jet or another Russian fighter that had been shadowing the MQ-9 struck the drone's propeller, damaging one blade, according to the U.S. military. The U.S. military said it ditched the MQ-9 Reaper in the sea after what it described as the Russian fighter making an unsafe intercept of the unmanned aerial vehicle.