Artificial intelligence versus clinicians: systematic review of design, reporting standards, and claims of deep learning studies

The digitisation of society means we are amassing data at an unprecedented rate. Healthcare is no exception, with IBM estimating approximately one million gigabytes accruing over an average person's lifetime and the overall volume of global healthcare data doubling every few years.1 To make sense of these big data, clinicians are increasingly collaborating with computer scientists and other allied disciplines to make use of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques that can help detect signal from noise.2 A recent forecast has placed the value of the healthcare AI market as growing from $2bn (£1.5bn; €1.8bn) in 2018 to $36bn by 2025, with a 50% compound annual growth rate.3 Deep learning is a subset of AI which is formally defined as "computational models that are composed of multiple processing layers to learn representations of data with multiple levels of abstraction."4 In practice, the main distinguishing feature between convolutional neural networks (CNNs) in deep learning and traditional machine learning is that when CNNs are fed with raw data, they develop their own representations needed for pattern recognition; they do not require domain expertise to structure the data and design feature extractors.5