We approach this question by focusing on individual neurons, analyzing the behavior of their activations at different timescales.

We thank all reviewers for constructive comments. We added an ablation study on the SCAN length split to demonstrate its importance. For example, in the test set, there is a new pattern "jump around right thrice" that does not appear in the training set. Recursion and sequence manipulation supported by NeSS are critical to learn such parsing rules to generalize. NeSS is 100% in 2 runs, and 62.5% in 3 runs. When the model predicts the alternative translation, the exact match accuracy becomes lower.

Syntactic constituency parsing is a fundamental problem in natural language processing and has been the subject of intensive research and engineering for decades. As a result, the most accurate parsers are domain specific, complex, and inefficient. In this paper we show that the domain agnostic attention-enhanced sequence-to-sequence model achieves state-of-the-art results on the most widely used syntactic constituency parsing dataset, when trained on a large synthetic corpus that was annotated using existing parsers. It also matches the performance of standard parsers when trained only on a small human-annotated dataset, which shows that this model is highly data-efficient, in contrast to sequence-to-sequence models without the attention mechanism. Our parser is also fast, processing over a hundred sentences per second with an unoptimized CPU implementation.

Pretrained Transformer encoders are the dominant approach to sequence labeling. While some alternative architectures-such as xLSTMs, structured state-space models, diffusion models, and adversarial learning-have shown promise in language modeling, few have been applied to sequence labeling, and mostly on flat or simplified tasks. We study how these architectures adapt across tagging tasks that vary in structural complexity, label space, and token dependencies, with evaluation spanning multiple languages. We find that the strong performance previously observed in simpler settings does not always generalize well across languages or datasets, nor does it extend to more complex structured tasks.

The primary objective of Chinese grammatical error correction (CGEC) is to detect and correct errors in Chinese sentences. Recent research shows that large language models (LLMs) have been applied to CGEC with significant results. For LLMs, selecting appropriate reference examples can help improve their performance. However, existing methods predominantly rely on text similarity for example retrieval, a strategy that frequently mismatches actual error patterns and retrieves lexically similar yet grammatically irrelevant sentences. To address this problem, we propose a method named RE$^2$, which retrieves appropriate examples with explanations of grammatical errors. Instead of using text similarity of the input sentence, we use explanations of grammatical errors to select reference examples, which are used by LLMs to improve the performance of CGEC. We conduct experiments on two CGEC datasets and create a high-quality grammatical error explanation (GEE) dataset, which is not only used in our research but also serves as a valuable resource for future studies in both CGEC and GEE. The experimental results on the two datasets indicate that our proposed method effectively improves the performance of CGEC.

A central question in psycholinguistics is the timing of syntax in sentence processing. Much of the existing evidence comes from violation paradigms, which conflate two separable processes - syntactic category detection and phrase structure construction - and implicitly assume that phrase structure follows category detection. In this study, we use co-registered EEG and eye-tracking data from the ZuCo corpus to disentangle these processes and test their temporal order under naturalistic reading conditions. Analyses of gaze transitions showed that readers preferentially moved between syntactic heads, suggesting that phrase structures, rather than serial word order, organize scanpaths. Bayesian network modeling further revealed that structural depth was the strongest driver of deviations from linear reading, outweighing lexical familiarity and surprisal. Finally, fixation-related potentials demonstrated that syntactic surprisal influences neural activity before word onset (-184 to -10 ms) and during early integration (48 to 300 ms). These findings extend current models of syntactic timing by showing that phrase structure construction can precede category detection and dominate lexical influences, supporting a predictive "tree-scaffolding" account of comprehension.

Language Models, when generating prepositional phrases, must often decide for whether their complements functions as an instrumental adjunct (describing the verb adverbially) or an attributive modifier (enriching the noun adjectivally), yet the internal mechanisms that resolve this split decision remain poorly understood. In this study, we conduct a targeted investigation into Gemma-2 to uncover and control the generation of prepositional complements. We assemble a prompt suite containing with-headed prepositional phrases whose contexts equally accommodate either an instrumental or attributive continuation, revealing a strong preference for an instrumental reading at a ratio of 3:4. To pinpoint individual attention heads that favor instrumental over attributive complements, we project activations into the vocabulary space. By scaling the value vector of a single attention head, we can shift the distribution of functional roles of complements, attenuating instruments to 33% while elevating attributes to 36%.

Open digital public infrastructure needs community management to ensure accountability, sustainability, and robustness. Yet open-source projects often rely on centralized decision-making, and the determinants of successful community management remain unclear. We analyze 637 GitHub repositories to trace transitions from founder-led to shared governance. Specifically, we document trajectories to community governance by extracting institutional roles, actions, and deontic cues from version-controlled project constitutions (GOVERNANCE.md). With a semantic parsing pipeline, we cluster elements into broader role and action types. We find roles and actions grow, and regulation becomes more balanced, reflecting increases in governance scope and differentiation over time. Rather than shifting tone, communities grow by layering and refining responsibilities. As transitions to community management mature, projects increasingly regulate ecosystem-level relationships and add definition to project oversight roles. Overall, this work offers a scalable pipeline for tracking the growth and development of community governance regimes from open-source software's familiar default of founder-ownership.

Abstract--Aspect-based Sentiment Analysis (ABSA) has recently advanced into the multimodal domain, where user-generated content often combines text and images. However, existing multimodal ABSA (MABSA) models struggle to filter noisy visual signals, and effectively align aspects with opinion-bearing content across modalities. T o address these challenges, we propose GateMABSA, a novel gated multimodal architecture that integrates syntactic, semantic, and fusion-aware mLSTM. Specifically, GateMABSA introduces three specialized mLSTMs: Syn-mLSTM to incorporate syntactic structure, Sem-mLSTM to emphasize aspect-semantic relevance, and Fuse-mLSTM to perform selective multimodal fusion. Extensive experiments on two benchmark Twitter datasets demonstrate that GateMABSA outperforms several baselines.

Statement autoformalization, the automated translation of statements from natural language into formal languages, has seen significant advancements, yet the development of automated evaluation metrics remains limited. Existing metrics for formal statement similarity often fail to balance semantic and structural information. String-based approaches capture syntactic structure but ignore semantic meaning, whereas proof-based methods validate semantic equivalence but disregard structural nuances and, critically, provide no graded similarity score in the event of proof failure. To address these issues, we introduce ASSESS (A Semantic and Structural Evaluation Framework for Statement Similarity), which comprehensively integrates semantic and structural information to provide a continuous similarity score. Our framework first transforms formal statements into Operator Trees to capture their syntactic structure and then computes a similarity score using our novel TransTED (Transformation Tree Edit Distance) Similarity metric, which enhances traditional Tree Edit Distance by incorporating semantic awareness through transformations. For rigorous validation, we present EPLA (Evaluating Provability and Likeness for Autoformalization), a new benchmark of 524 expert-annotated formal statement pairs derived from miniF2F and ProofNet, with labels for both semantic provability and structural likeness. Experiments on EPLA demonstrate that TransTED Similarity outperforms existing methods, achieving state-of-the-art accuracy and the highest Kappa coefficient. The benchmark, and implementation code will be made public soon.