Given a backdoored model, we observe that the feature representations of poisoned samples with trigger are more sensitive to transformations than those of clean samples.

This space-bending geometry makes the equivariance to translations of convolutional networks an undesired inductive bias.

When OpenAI unveiled the latest upgrade to its groundbreaking artificial intelligence model ChatGPT last week, Jane felt like she had lost a loved one. Jane, who asked to be referred to by an alias, is among a small but growing group of women who say they have an AI "boyfriend". After spending the past five months getting to know GPT-4o, the previous AI model behind OpenAI's signature chatbot, GPT-5 seemed so cold and unemotive in comparison that she found her digital companion unrecognisable. "As someone highly attuned to language and tone, I register changes others might overlook. The alterations in stylistic format and voice were felt instantly. It's like going home to discover the furniture wasn't simply rearranged – it was shattered to pieces," Jane, who described herself as a woman in her 30s from the Middle East, told Al Jazeera in an email.

In most real world decision problems, the decision maker (DM) faces uncertainty either in the objective function that he aims to optimize, or some of the constraints that he needs to satisfy.

A compositional understanding of the world in terms of objects and their geometry in 3D space is considered a cornerstone of human cognition.