Segmentation of 3D images is a fundamental problem in biomedical image analysis. Deep learning (DL) approaches have achieved the state-of-the-art segmentation performance. To exploit the 3D contexts using neural networks, known DL segmentation methods, including 3D convolution, 2D convolution on the planes orthogonal to 2D slices, and LSTM in multiple directions, all suffer incompatibility with the highly anisotropic dimensions in common 3D biomedical images. In this paper, we propose a new DL framework for 3D image segmentation, based on a combination of a fully convolutional network (FCN) and a recurrent neural network (RNN), which are responsible for exploiting the intra-slice and inter-slice contexts, respectively. To our best knowledge, this is the first DL framework for 3D image segmentation that explicitly leverages 3D image anisotropism. Evaluating using a dataset from the ISBI Neuronal Structure Segmentation Challenge and in-house image stacks for 3D fungus segmentation, our approach achieves promising results, comparing to the known DL-based 3D segmentation approaches.

We study the cost function for hierarchical clusterings introduced by [Dasgupta, 2015] where hierarchies are treated as first-class objects rather than deriving their cost from projections into flat clusters. It was also shown in [Dasgupta, 2015] that a top-down algorithm returns a hierarchical clustering of cost at most (O\left(\alpha n) is the approximation ratio of the Sparsest Cut subroutine used. Thus using the best known approximation algorithm for Sparsest Cut due to Arora-Rao-Vazirani, the top down algorithm returns a hierarchical clustering of cost at most (O\left(\log^{3/2} n\right)) times the cost of the optimal solution. We improve this by giving an (O(\log{n}))-approximation algorithm for this problem. Our main technical ingredients are a combinatorial characterization of ultrametrics induced by this cost function, deriving an Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulation for this family of ultrametrics, and showing how to iteratively round an LP relaxation of this formulation by using the idea of \emph{sphere growing} which has been extensively used in the context of graph partitioning. We also prove that our algorithm returns an (O(\log{n}))-approximate hierarchical clustering for a generalization of this cost function also studied in [Dasgupta, 2015]. Experiments show that the hierarchies found by using the ILP formulation as well as our rounding algorithm often have better projections into flat clusters than the standard linkage based algorithms. We conclude with an inapproximability result for this problem, namely that no polynomial sized LP or SDP can be used to obtain a constant factor approximation for this problem.

We provide a theoretical foundation for non-parametric estimation of functions of random variables using kernel mean embeddings. We show that for any continuous function f, consistent estimators of the mean embedding of a random variable X lead to consistent estimators of the mean embedding of f(X). For Matern kernels and sufficiently smooth functions we also provide rates of convergence. Our results extend to functions of multiple random variables. If the variables are dependent, we require an estimator of the mean embedding of their joint distribution as a starting point; if they are independent, it is sufficient to have separate estimators of the mean embeddings of their marginal distributions. In either case, our results cover both mean embeddings based on i.i.d.

The amount of data available in the world is growing faster than our ability to deal with it. However, if we take advantage of the internal structure, data may become much smaller for machine learning purposes. In this paper we focus on one of the fundamental machine learning tasks, empirical risk minimization (ERM), and provide faster algorithms with the help from the clustering structure of the data. We introduce a simple notion of raw clustering that can be efficiently computed from the data, and propose two algorithms based on clustering information. Our accelerated algorithm ClusterACDM is built on a novel Haar transformation applied to the dual space of the ERM problem, and our variance-reduction based algorithm ClusterSVRG introduces a new gradient estimator using clustering. Our algorithms outperform their classical counterparts ACDM and SVRG respectively.

US President Donald Trump has renewed his criticism of the UK government over its response to the Iran conflict, after Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer said the country would not be drawn into the wider war. Trump told reporters on Monday he was not happy with the UK, adding it should be involved enthusiastically in efforts to reopen the Strait of Hormuz - a vital oil shipping channel . He later told a press conference there were some countries that greatly disappointed me before he singled out the UK, which he said had been considered the Rolls-Royce of allies. Trump's remarks came after Sir Keir said the UK was working with allies on a viable, collective plan to reopen the strait. Sir Keir also said the UK already had minehunters in the region but there was no decision yet on what action would be taken.

We present an architecture which lets us train deep, directed generative models with many layers of latent variables. We include deterministic paths between all latent variables and the generated output, and provide a richer set of connections between computations for inference and generation, which enables more effective communication of information throughout the model during training. To improve performance on natural images, we incorporate a lightweight autoregressive model in the reconstruction distribution. These techniques permit end-to-end training of models with 10+ layers of latent variables. Experiments show that our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on standard image modelling benchmarks, can expose latent class structure in the absence of label information, and can provide convincing imputations of occluded regions in natural images.

In this paper, we address the problems of identifying linear structural equation models and discovering the constraints they imply. We first extend the half-trek criterion to cover a broader class of models and apply our extension to finding testable constraints implied by the model. We then show that any semi-Markovian linear model can be recursively decomposed into simpler sub-models, resulting in improved identification and constraint discovery power. Finally, we show that, unlike the existing methods developed for linear models, the resulting method subsumes the identification and constraint discovery algorithms for non-parametric models.

How do people learn about complex functional structure? Taking inspiration from other areas of cognitive science, we propose that this is accomplished by harnessing compositionality: complex structure is decomposed into simpler building blocks.

We study a stochastic and distributed algorithm for nonconvex problems whose objective consists a sum $N$ nonconvex $L_i/N$-smooth functions, plus a nonsmooth regularizer. The proposed NonconvEx primal-dual SpliTTing (NESTT) algorithm splits the problem into $N$ subproblems, and utilizes an augmented Lagrangian based primal-dual scheme to solve it in a distributed and stochastic manner. With a special non-uniform sampling, a version of NESTT achieves $\epsilon$-stationary solution using $\mathcal{O}((\sum_{i=1}^N\sqrt{L_i/N})^2/\epsilon)$ gradient evaluations, which can be up to $\mathcal{O}(N)$ times better than the (proximal) gradient descent methods. It also achieves Q-linear convergence rate for nonconvex $\ell_1$ penalized quadratic problems with polyhedral constraints. Further, we reveal a fundamental connection between {\it primal-dual} based methods and a few {\it primal only} methods such as IAG/SAG/SAGA.

We consider sequential decision making problem in the adversarial setting, where regret is measured with respect to the optimal sequence of actions and the feedback adheres the bandit setting. It is well-known that obtaining sublinear regret in this setting is impossible in general, which arises the question of when can we do better than linear regret? Previous works show that when the environment is guaranteed to vary slowly and furthermore we are given prior knowledge regarding its variation (i.e., a limit on the amount of changes suffered by the environment), then this task is feasible. The caveat however is that such prior knowledge is not likely to be available in practice, which causes the obtained regret bounds to be somewhat irrelevant. Our main result is a regret guarantee that scales with the variation parameter of the environment, without requiring any prior knowledge about it whatsoever. By that, we also resolve an open problem posted by [Gur, Zeevi and Besbes, NIPS' 14]. An important key component in our result is a statistical test for identifying non-stationarity in a sequence of independent random variables. This test either identifies non-stationarity or upper-bounds the absolute deviation of the corresponding sequence of mean values in terms of its total variation. This test is interesting on its own right and has the potential to be found useful in additional settings.