We focus on the task of approximating the optimal value function in deep reinforcement learning. This iterative process is comprised of solving a sequence of optimization problems where the loss function changes per iteration. The common approach to solving this sequence of problems is to employ modern variants of the stochastic gradient descent algorithm such as Adam. These optimizers maintain their own internal parameters such as estimates of the first-order and the secondorder moments of the gradient, and update them over time. Therefore, information obtained in previous iterations is used to solve the optimization problem in the current iteration. We demonstrate that this can contaminate the moment estimates because the optimization landscape can change arbitrarily from one iteration to the next one. To hedge against this negative effect, a simple idea is to reset the internal parameters of the optimizer when starting a new iteration. We empirically investigate this resetting idea by employing various optimizers in conjunction with the Rainbow algorithm. We demonstrate that this simple modification significantly improves the performance of deep RL on the Atari benchmark.

Biases with respect to socially-salient attributes of individuals have been well documented in evaluation processes used in settings such as admissions and hiring. We view such an evaluation process as a transformation of a distribution of the true utility of an individual for a task to an observed distribution and model it as a solution to a loss minimization problem subject to an information constraint. Our model has two parameters that have been identified as factors leading to biases: the resource-information trade-off parameter in the information constraint and the risk-averseness parameter in the loss function. We characterize the distributions that arise from our model and study the effect of the parameters on the observed distribution. The outputs of our model enrich the class of distributions that can be used to capture variation across groups in the observed evaluations. We empirically validate our model by fitting real-world datasets and use it to study the effect of interventions in a downstream selection task. These results contribute to an understanding of the emergence of bias in evaluation processes and provide tools to guide the deployment of interventions to mitigate biases.

Reproducibility319 The backbone recommendation model, DLRM by Naumov et al. [2019], has an open-source PyTorch320 implementation available on Github which includes an implementation of CE. For CCE you need a321 fast library for K-means. We recommend the open-sourced implementation by Johnson et al. [2019]322 for better performance, but you can also use the implementation in Scikit-learn [Pedregosa et al.,323 2011]. The baseline result should be straightforward to reproduce as we closely follow the instructions324 provided by Naumov et al. [2019]. For the CE methods, we only need to change two functions in325 the code: create_emband apply_emb. We suggest using a class for each CE method; see Figure 3.326 For the random hash function, one could use a universal hash function or numpy.random.randint.327

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Limitations One limitation of our model is its potential for data bias. KOSMOS-1 is trained on a2 web-scale multimodal corpus, which means that it is likely to be biased towards the data that it was3 trained on. This could lead to the model generating text that is biased towards certain demographics4 or viewpoints.5 Another limitation of KOSMOS-1 is its relatively small size compared to other large language models.6 This means that the model may not be able to learn as complex relationships between different7 modalities. This could lead to the model making mistakes when it is asked to perform tasks that8 require a deep understanding of multiple modalities.9 Finally, KOSMOS-1 only supports vision modality.