See also the article by Tadavarthi et al in this issue. Evis Sala, MD, PhD, is the professor of oncological imaging at the University of Cambridge, UK and co-leads the Advanced Cancer Imaging Programme and the Integrative Cancer Medicine Programme for the Cancer Research UK Cambridge Centre. Her current research focuses on radiogenomics through multiomics data integration for evaluation of spatial and temporal tumor heterogeneity and on the applications of AI methods for image reconstruction, segmentation, and data integration. Stephan Ursprung, MD, is a 3rd-year PhD student in the department of radiology at the University of Cambridge, UK. His research focuses on the development of AI models for automated segmentation, lesion classification, and treatment response prediction in renal cancer. Dr Ursprung's interests include health information technology, molecular and physiologic imaging, as well as multiomics data integration.

The "You only look once v4"(YOLOv4) is one type of object detection methods in deep learning. YOLOv4-tiny is proposed based on YOLOv4 to simple the network structure and reduce parameters, which makes it be suitable for developing on the mobile and embedded devices. To improve the real-time of object detection, a fast object detection method is proposed based on YOLOv4-tiny. It firstly uses two ResBlock-D modules in ResNet-D network instead of two CSPBlock modules in Yolov4-tiny, which reduces the computation complexity. Secondly, it designs an auxiliary residual network block to extract more feature information of object to reduce detection error. In the design of auxiliary network, two consecutive 3x3 convolutions are used to obtain 5x5 receptive fields to extract global features, and channel attention and spatial attention are also used to extract more effective information. In the end, it merges the auxiliary network and backbone network to construct the whole network structure of improved YOLOv4-tiny. Simulation results show that the proposed method has faster object detection than YOLOv4-tiny and YOLOv3-tiny, and almost the same mean value of average precision as the YOLOv4-tiny. It is more suitable for real-time object detection.

A structural causal model is made of endogenous (manifest) and exogenous (latent) variables. In a recent paper, it has been shown that endogenous observations induce linear constraints on the probabilities of the exogenous variables. This allows to exactly map a causal model into a \emph{credal network}. Causal inferences, such as interventions and counterfactuals, can consequently be obtained by standard credal network algorithms. These natively return sharp values in the identifiable case, while intervals corresponding to the exact bounds are produced for unidentifiable queries. In this paper we present an approximate characterization of the constraints on the exogenous probabilities. This is based on a specialization of the EM algorithm to the treatment of the missing values in the exogenous observations. Multiple EM runs can be consequently used to describe the causal model as a set of Bayesian networks and, hence, a credal network to be queried for the bounding of unidentifiable queries. Preliminary empirical tests show how this approach might provide good inner bounds with relatively few runs. This is a promising direction for causal analysis in models whose topology prevents a straightforward specification of the credal mapping.

A decision tree is one of the supervised machine learning algorithms. This algorithm can be used for regression and classification problems -- yet, is mostly used for classification problems. A decision tree follows a set of if-else conditions to visualize the data and classify it according to the conditions. Before we dive deep into the working principle of the decision tree's algorithm you need to know a few keywords related to it. Attribute Subset Selection Measure is a technique used in the data mining process for data reduction.

In this chapter we will show you how to make a "Decision Tree". A Decision Tree is a Flow Chart, and can help you make decisions based on previous experience. In the example, a person will try to decide if he/she should go to a comedy show or not. Luckily our example person has registered every time there was a comedy show in town, and registered some information about the comedian, and also registered if he/she went or not. Now, based on this data set, Python can create a decision tree that can be used to decide if any new shows are worth attending to.

Domain adaptation (DA) arises as an important problem in statistical machine learning when the source data used to train a model is different from the target data used to test the model. Recent advances in DA have mainly been application-driven and have largely relied on the idea of a common subspace for source and target data. To understand the empirical successes and failures of DA methods, we propose a theoretical framework via structural causal models that enables analysis and comparison of the prediction performance of DA methods. This framework also allows us to itemize the assumptions needed for the DA methods to have a low target error. Additionally, with insights from our theory, we propose a new DA method called CIRM that outperforms existing DA methods when both the covariates and label distributions are perturbed in the target data. We complement the theoretical analysis with extensive simulations to show the necessity of the devised assumptions. Reproducible synthetic and real data experiments are also provided to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of DA methods when parts of the assumptions of our theory are violated.

Formally a decision tree is a graphical representation of all possible solutions to a decision. These days, tree-based algorithms are the most commonly used algorithms in case of supervised learning scenarios. They are easier to interpret and visualize with great adaptability. We can use tree-based algorithms for both regression and classification problems, However, most of the time they are used for classification problem. Let's understand a decision tree from an example: Yesterday evening, I skipped dinner at my usual time because I was busy taking care of some stuff. Later in the night, I felt butterflies in my stomach.

The environments in which we deploy machine learning (ML) algorithms rarely look exactly like the environments in which we collected our training data. Unfortunately, we lack methodology for evaluating how well an algorithm will generalize to new environments that differ in a structured way from the training data (i.e., the case of dataset shift (Quiñonero-Candela et al., 2009)). Such methodology is increasingly important as ML systems are being deployed across a number of industries, such as health care and personal finance, in which system performance translates directly to real-world outcomes. Further, as regulation and product reviews become more common across industries, system developers will be expected to produce evidence of the validity and safety of their systems. For example, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) currently regulates ML systems for medical applications, requiring evidence for the validity of such systems before approval is granted (US Food and Drug Administration, 2019). Evaluation methods for assessing model validity have typically focused on how the model performs on data from the training distribution, known as internal validity. Powerful tools, such as cross-validation and the bootstrap, satisfy the assumption that the training and test data are drawn from the same distribution. However, these validation methods do not capture a model's ability to generalize to new environments, known as external validity (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). Currently, the main way to assess a model's external validity is to empirically evaluate performance on multiple, independently collected datasets (e.g.,

Recent advances in causal inference techniques, more specifically, in the theory of structural causal models, provide the framework for identification of causal effects from observational data in the cases where the causal graph is identifiable, i.e., the data generating mechanism can be recovered from the joint distribution. However, no such studies have been done to demonstrate this concept with a clinical example. We present a complete framework to estimate the causal effect from observational data by augmenting expert knowledge in the model development phase and with a practical clinical application. Our clinical application entails a timely and important research question, i.e., the effect of oxygen therapy intervention in the intensive care unit (ICU); the result of this project is useful in a variety of disease conditions, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) patients in the ICU. We used data from the MIMIC III database, a standard database in the machine learning community that contains 58,976 admissions from an ICU in Boston, MA, for estimating the oxygen therapy effect on morality. We also identified the covariate-specific effect to oxygen therapy from the model for more personalized intervention.

But two main contradictions remain: First, AI/ML are very heterogeneous, and Services for Cyber-Physical Systems based on Artificial each AI/ML method comes with a specialized model Intelligence and Machine Learning require formalism to capture relevant aspects of the environment a virtual representation of the physical. To reduce and the application domain. Hence, the modeling efforts and to synchronize results, for each question is how a DigitalTwin can provide the correct system, a common and unique virtual representation model to each AI/ML method. The second used by all services during the whole system contradiction is that AI/ML requires explicit, i.e. life-cycle is needed--i.e. a DigitalTwin. In this paper by an algorithm processable knowledge, since compiled such a DigitalTwin, namely the AI reference knowledge in form of simulation libraries, raw model AITwin, is defined. This reference model is data or executables does not help. But most publications verified by using a running example from process refer to these kind of information.